1.1 Networking & Telecommunications - SEE COMPUTER SCIENCE 2081

 

1.1 Networking & Telecommunications

 

Communication

The process of sending and receiving data and information between two or more than two people is known as communication.

 

Telecommunication

The transmission of data and information from one place to another for the purpose of communication is known as telecommunication. E.g. mobile phone, Internet phone, television, landline, radio, etc.

 

Data communication

Data communication is the process of transferring data and information between computers and other electronic devices. E.g.  E-Mail, Chat and phone calls

 

Components of Data Communication

The basic elements of data communication are: data (message), sender, medium, receiver and protocol.

 

Data (message) : Data is to be communicated between sender and receiver.

Sender : Sender is a device used to transfer data.

Medium: Medium is a channel through which sender and receiver make communication.

Receiver: Receiver is a device used to receive data.

Protocol: Protocol is a set of rules followed by sender and receiver.

 

Data Transmission Mode

Data transmission mode is the way of transmission of data from one location to another.

 

Types of transmission mode:

v Simplex mode           

v Duplex mode (Half Duplex and Full Duplex Mode)      

 

Simplex mode
Simplex mode is the transmission of data and information that takes place in only one direction. It is a unidirectional mode of data transmission.

Radio, newspaper, television broadcasting, books etc. are examples of simplex mode.

Duplex Mode

Duplex is mode of data transmission in which data and information flow in both directions. It is bi-directional mode of data transmission. The two types of duplex modes are:

v Half Duplex Mode             

v Full Duplex Mode

 

Half duplex mode
Half-duplex is the transmission of data and information that flows in both directions but only one direction at a time. Walky-talky and wireless handset are examples of half-duplex mode.

 

Full duplex mode

Full duplex mode is the transmission of data and information that flows in both direction simultaneously on the transmission path. Mobile and landline phones are examples of full duplex mode.

Difference between Simplex, Half duplex and Full Duplex Mode

Simplex Mode	Half Duplex Mode	Full Duplex Mode
Simplex mode is the transmission of data and information that takes place in only one direction.	Half duplex mode is the transmission of data and information that takes place in both directions but only one direction at a time. .	Full duplex mode is the transmission of data and information that takes place in both directions simultaneously on the transmission path.
It is a unidirectional mode of data transmission.	It is bi-directional mode of data transmission	It is bi-directional mode of data transmission
Radio, newspaper, television broadcasting, books etc. are examples of simplex mode.	Walky-talky and wireless handset are examples of half duplex mode.	Mobile and landline phones are examples of full duplex mode.

Communication Media / Transmission Media

A channel or path through which data and information are transmitted between connected devices in a network environment is called communication media.

The two main types of communication media are:

v Guided (Wired/bounded) communication media

v Unguided (Wireless/unbounded) communication media

Guided (Wired/bounded) Communication Media

Guided media refers to physical cables like twisted pair, coaxial, and optical fibers that transmit data signals securely along a defined path.

This is an easy, fast and secure way to transfer data and information from one device to another.

 

The three types of wire or cable are:

v Twisted pair Wire

v Co-Axial Cable

v Fiber Optic Cable

 

Twisted Pair Wire

Twisted pair cable is a type of cable where two wires are twisted together to reduce interference, and is commonly used in telephone lines and computer networks.

RJ-45 connector is the most popular connector used in twisted-pair wire.

Crosstalk - A disturbance caused by electromagnetic interference, along a circuit or a cable pair)

 

The two types of twisted pair wire are:

v UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair)  

v STP (Shielded Twisted Pair)

 

Unshielded twisted pair (UTP)

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) is a popular type of cable with two twisted wires that are not covered with extra shielding.

It is commonly used in telephone wiring and local area networks (LANs).

RJ-45 connector is commonly used with unshielded twisted pair.

 

Shielded twisted pair (STP)

STP (Shielded Twisted Pair) is a type of cable with extra shielding around the twisted wires, which helps protect the data from interference and noise, improving signal quality.

 D-shell connectors are used with shielded twisted pair.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Difference between STP and UTP

UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair)	STP (Shielded Twisted Pair)
UTP cable is a twisted pair cable with wires that are twisted together. Transferring speed of the data signal is slow	It is enclosed within a foil or mesh shield. Transferring speed of the data signal is high
In UTP, the electromagnetic interference is more than the STP while transferring the signal to the transmission media.	It reduces electromagnetic interference while transferring the signal to the transmission media.

 

Co-axial cable

A coaxial cable is a type of cable with a central conductor, insulation, a shielding layer, and an outer cover, used to transmit signals like TV and internet data..

BNC and T connectors are the most popular connector used in co-axial cable.

 

Fiber optic cable

A fiber optic cable is a type of cable that uses light signals to transmit data through thin glass or plastic fibers, offering high-speed and high-capacity data transmission with minimal signal loss.

The connectors used in fiber optics are Screw Mounted Adaptors (SMA), Straight Tip Connector (ST), SC (Subscriber Connector) and FC (Ferrule Connector).

 

Unguided (Wireless/unbounded) Communication Media

Unguided media is a type of wireless communication where data is sent through the air using electromagnetic waves, such as radio waves or microwaves, instead of through cables.

 

The types of wireless communication are:

v Radio Wave

v Micro Wave

v Infrared

 

Radio wave transmission

Radio wave transmission is a method of sending data through the air using electromagnetic waves called radio waves.

This method is widely used for broadcasting radio and TV signals, as well as for wireless communications such as Wi-Fi and Bluetooth.

 

 

Microwave transmission

Microwave transmission is a method of sending data using microwaves, which are electromagnetic waves with shorter wavelengths than radio waves.

This technology is used for high-speed, long-distance communication, such as satellite communications.

Radio wave Transmission	Microwave Transmission
The transmission making use of radio waves through air is called radio wave transmission.	Microwave is a line-of-sight wireless communication technology that uses high frequency beams of radio waves.
The radio waves can travel through walls and through an entire building.	Microwaves do not pass through buildings. So, indoor receivers cannot be used effectively.
It provides low bandwidth for data communication.	It provides higher bandwidth for data communication.
It does not require line of sight for data transmission	It requires line of sight for data transmission.

Infrared transmission

Infrared transmission is a method of sending information using infrared light.

This technique is commonly used for short-range communication, such as with remote controls, wireless devices.

It requires line-of-sight and is unable to break through walls.

Satellite Communication

Satellite communication is a method of sending and receiving information through satellites in space. These satellites act as relay stations, enabling long-distance communication like television broadcasts, internet services, and phone calls.

It is like microwave relay stations in the space or sky.

Difference between guided and unguided media

Guided Media	Unguided Media
The media which uses cable or wire to transfer data and information among computers are called guided communication media.	Unguided communication is a communication channel in which data and information are transferred between two devices without using wire or cable.
Guided media is used for point-to-point communication.	Unguided media is generally suited for radio broadcasting in all directions.
Capable of high-speed data transmission.	Slower data transmission compared to guided media.
Examples of guided media are Twisted Pair Cable, Co-Axial Cable and Fiber Optic Cable	Examples of unguided media are Radio Wave, Micor Wave and Satellite Communication

Computer Network

A computer network is a system of interconnected computers and devices that share resources and communicate with each other.

It allows users to share files, access the internet, and use shared printers and other resources.

The services provided by computer network are print service, message service, application service, file service, database service, etc.

 

Advantage of Computer Network

v Users can share resources like hardware (printers) and software (applications) across the network.

v Allows users to easily share and access files from different computers.

v Facilitates communication through email, instant messaging, and video conferencing.

v Reduces costs by sharing resources and reducing the need for duplicate hardware and software.

 

Disadvantage of Computer Network

v Networks can be hacked, leading to loss or theft of important data.

v Keeping a network running smoothly can be expensive and requires regular updates.

v Setting up and managing a network can be difficult and might need technical skills.

v If the network goes down, it can prevent access to shared files and resources.

 

"Computer network reduces the operation cost." Justify this statement.

Computer network reduces the operation cost as it allows to share software and hardware in the network, so extra hardware or software copies is not needed to install for each and every computer in the network.

 

Basic Elements of the Network

Physical parts and devices used to connect computers in the network environment are called hardware components.

The hardware components of computer network are computer set, modem, hub, NIC card, , repeater, etc.

The software elements are NOS, Protocol and Device Driver

 

 

 

NIC Card (Network Interface Card)

A Network Interface Card (NIC) is a hardware component that allows a computer or other device to connect to a network.

It can be either wired (Ethernet) or wireless (Wi-Fi).

A Network Interface Card (NIC) enables a computer to connect to a network, allowing it to send and receive data and communicate with other devices.

 

Connectors

A connector is a hardware component that links two or more electronic devices, allowing them to connect and exchange data or signals.

 

The different types of connectors are:

RJ- 45 connector for UTP cable

BNC connector for co-axial cable

ST connector for fiber optics cable

 

Hub

A hub is a networking device that connects multiple computers or devices in a network,

It receives data from one device and broadcasts it to all other connected devices, making it a basic method for network communication.

 

Switch

A switch is a networking device that connects multiple computers or devices in a network and directs data only to the specific device it’s intended for.

This helps manage network traffic more efficiently compared to a hub.

 

Hub Vs Switch

Hub	Switch
It is cheaper than switch.	It is more expensive than hub.
It transmits data slower than switch.	It transmits data faster than hub.
It broadcasts the information packets to all computer connected network.	It transfers packets to only those selected computers connected in network.
It has 4 / 12 ports	It has 24 to 48 ports

Why switch is also known as smart hub?

A switch is called a "smart hub" because it directs data only to the specific devices that need it, improving network efficiency and reducing collisions, unlike a traditional hub that broadcasts data to all devices.

Bridge

A bridge is a network device that connects two or more network segments, making them work together as one network.

It helps reduce traffic by sending data only where it’s needed.

It connects similar networks.

 

Router

A router is a network device that connects multiple networks and directs data between them.

It manages traffic, ensuring that data is sent to the correct destination across networks.

It is an intelligent device that has ability to determine the best possible path for data transmission.

 

Difference between Switch and Router

Router	Switch
The main objective of router is to connect various networks simultaneously.	The main objective of switch is to connect various devices simultaneously.
A router can take a routing decision much faster than a switch.	The switch takes more time while making complicated routing decisions.

 

Gateway

Gateway is a network connectivity device that interconnects two networks having dissimilar communication protocols. It is also called protocol converters.

 

Repeater

Repeater is a network connectivity device that accepts weak signals and regenerates them and after that sends the message on their way.

It makes possible for long-distance data transfer.

 

MODEM (Modulator and Demodulator)

A modem (modulator-demodulator) is a device that converts digital data from a computer into analog signals for transmission over communication lines and converts incoming analog signals back into digital data for the computer, enabling internet access and data communication.

 

Which device is used to connect PC with telephone line? - MODEM

Importance of MODEM

A modem is important because it connects computer to the internet. It converts digital data of computer into analog signals for transmission and converts incoming signals back into digital data, allowing to access websites, emails, and online services.

 

Modulation

Modulation is the process of converting digital data from a computer into an analog signal for transmission over communication channels, like phone lines or radio waves.

 

Demodulation

Demodulation is the process of converting an incoming analog signal back into digital data that a computer or device can understand and use.

 

Bandwidth

Bandwidth is the maximum amount of data that can be transmitted over a network or communication channel in a given amount of time.

We can measure bandwidth in digital devices by bits per second (bps) and in analogue devices by cycles per second (cps) or Hertz (Hz).

 

Network Operating System (NOS)

A Network Operating System (NOS) is software that manages and controls network resources, enabling computers and devices to communicate and share data.

Examples include Microsoft Windows Server, Linux, and Unix.

 

The main functions of NOS are:

Network Management: Controls and manages network resources and devices.

File Sharing: Allows users to access and share files across the network.

User Management: Manages user accounts and permissions, ensuring secure access.

Network Security: Protects the network from unauthorized access and security threats.

 

Protocol

A protocol is a set of rules that determines how data is sent and received over a network

Examples include HTTP for web browsing and TCP/IP for internet communication.

NCP (Network Control Protocol) was the first protocol.

 

Some common protocols are as follows:

l TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) is used in Internet.

l HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) is used to transfer HTML documents in WWW.

l SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) is used in sending e-mail.

l POP (Post Office Protocol) is used to retrieve e-mail from a mail server.

 l FTP (File Transfer Protocol) is used to transmitting files between computers.

 

Device driver

A device driver is a special program that helps computer communicate with hardware devices, like printers or graphics cards.

It allows the computer to understand and use the hardware correctly.

 

Types of Network (Area Covered)

1. LAN (Local Area Network)

2. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

3. WAN (Wide Area Network)

 

LAN (Local Area Network)

A LAN (Local Area Network) is a network that connects computers and devices within a small area, like a home, office, or school. It allows them to share resources, such as files and printers, and communicate with each other.

 

Features of LAN (Local Area Network)

Limited Geographic Area: Covers a small area, like a home, office, or school.

High Speed: Provides high data transfer rates for quick communication.

Security: Typically has stronger security controls within the network's limited area.

Cost-Effective: Often less expensive to set up and maintain compared to larger networks.

 

MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

A MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) is a network that covers a large area within a city allowing for data sharing and communication.

 

 

Features of MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

Geographic Coverage: Connects multiple LANs within a city or a large campus.

Medium Speed: Offers faster data transfer rates than WAN but slower than LAN.

Cost: More expensive than LANs but less costly than WANs.

Reliable Connectivity: Provides reliable connections across a broader area than LANs.

 

WAN (Wide Area Network)

WAN (Wide Area Network) is a network that covers a large geographic area, such as different cities, countries, or even globally, connecting multiple LANs and MANs.

 

Features of WAN (Wide Area Network)

Broad Geographic Coverage: Connects LANs and MANs across cities, countries, or globally.

Varied Speed: Data transfer rates can be slower than LANs due to long distances.

Cost: More expensive to set up and maintain due to its large scale.

Complex Infrastructure: Uses various technologies like leased lines and satellites to connect distant areas.

Difference between LAN, MAN and WAN

LAN	MAN	WAN
Local Area Network is a network limited within a small area like a room, a building, school, college, etc. generally connected through wire media.	Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is a network within the area like valley, city, metropolitan, etc. connected through wire or wireless technology or media.	Wide Area Network is a network that is extended to a large area i.e. whole world in which computers are connected through wireless technology or media as satellite communication
The speed of LAN is high(more than WAN).	The speed of MAN is average.	The speed of WAN is slower than LAN.
LAN is owned, managed, and used by an individual or an organization. Therefore, it is a private network.	MAN’s ownership can be private or public.	WAN can be either private or public. The Internet is the best example of public WAN.
The maintenance cost of LAN is easy.	MAN usually rely on fiber optic cables.	The maintenance cost of WAN is difficult.

Network Architecture/Model

Network architecture is the design and layout of a network, including how its components are arranged and how they interact.

 

The three types of network architecture are:

1. Peer to Peer Network

2. Client-Server Network

3. Centralized Network

 

Peer to Peer Network

A peer-to-peer (P2P) network is a type of network where each computer or device (peer) can act as both a client and a server.

Each device can share files and resources with the others without needing a central server.

 

Advantage of Peer to Peer Network

System administrator is not required and each user can control their shared resources.

The failure of one computer doesn't affect the functioning of other peers.

 

Disadvantages of Peer to Peer Network

Security is very low in this system.

Data recovery or backup is very difficult.

 

Client-Server Network

A client-server network is a type of network where one or more powerful computers (servers) offer various network services, and other computers (clients) access these services to perform tasks.

The server provides resources and services, like files and printers, to the clients, and manages the network.

 

Advantages of Client-Server Network

Centralized back up is possible in client-server computer network.

Security is better in this network as all the shared resources are centrally administered.

Disadvantages of Client-Server Network

It requires specialized servers with large memory. This leads to an increase in the cost.

It requires network administrator.

Centralized Network

A centralized network is a type of network where all the data, control, and processing are handled by a central server.

All other devices in the network rely on this central server to access resources, files, and applications.

 

Advantages of Centralized Network

It secures all data and information on host computer which works on IPOS (input process output system).

Host Computer gives facilities like Disk storage and software to workstation.

 

Disadvantages of Centralized Network

It takes long time for data processing.

It is difficult to add more workstation

 

Difference between client/server network and peer to peer network

 

Client-Server Network	Peer to Peer Network
In a client-server network, powerful computers called servers provide resources and services, while other computers, known as clients, access these resources and services.	In a peer-to-peer network, all computers have equal roles and can both provide and request resources without a centralized server.
Security and data management are handled by the server. Network administrator manages and enforces security policies.	Security is managed individually on each peer. Each peer is responsible for its own security and data.
Client-Server Network focuses on information sharing.	Peer-to-Peer Network focuses on connectivity.
Client-Server Network is used for both small and large networks.	Peer-to-Peer Network is generally suited for small networks

 

Workstation
A computer on a network that uses resources of the network is called workstation.

 

Node
Each computer or device of network is called node.

 

 

Network Topology  (LAN Topology)

LAN topology refers to the layout or arrangement of devices within a Local Area Network (LAN).

 

The three main types of topology are:

Bus Topology , Ring Topology & Star Topology

 

Bus Topology

Bus topology is a network configuration where all devices are connected to a single central cable known as a "bus".

 

Advantages of Bus Topology

It’s easy to set up and doesn’t require a lot of cables.

It is used in small networks where not many devices are connected.

 

Disadvantage of Bus Topology

If the main cable breaks, the whole network stops working.

The cable length is limited, so it’s not suitable for large networks.

 

Sketch of Bus Topology

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Ring/Loop Topology

Ring topology is a type of network where each device is connected in a circular pattern which means each device is connected to exactly two other devices, forming a ring.

 

Advantages of Ring Topology

Because data moves in one direction, it's easier to manage, and there are fewer data collisions.

The network's performance stays consistent since data passes through each device in order.

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

If one device or the connection between two devices fails, the whole network can stop working.

Finding and fixing problems in the network can be harder compared to other topologies.

 

Sketch of Ring Topology

 

 

Star Topology

Star topology is a type of network configuration where all devices are connected to a central device, typically a hub or a switch.

 

Advantages of Star Topology

Failure in one device does not affect the rest of the network due to independent connections.

Adding or removing devices is simple and doesn’t affect the rest of the network.

 

Disadvantages of Star Topology

If the central hub or switch fails, the entire network will stop functioning.

It requires more cabling and a central hub, making it more expensive compared to bus or ring topology.

 

Sketch of Star Topology

 

 

Internet

The Internet is a worldwide network that connects millions of smaller networks, allowing people to share information and communicate with each other from anywhere in the world.

 

History of Internet

Internet was originated in 1969 AD by ARPANET (Advanced Research Project Agency Network).

ARPANET provides communication among various bodies of government which was developed by United States Department of Defense.

In 1992 AD, the Internet was openly used throughout the world.

In Nepal, Internet service was started by Mercantile Company in 1994 AD.

 

Advantages of internet

Provides instant access to a wide range of information on various topics.

Facilitates instant communication through emails, messaging apps, and video calls with people around the world.

Provides access for movies, music, games, and other forms of entertainment.

Enables online shopping, banking, and other services, saving time and effort.

 

Disadvantages of internet

Personal information can be exposed to hackers or misused by online services.

Individuals may face harassment or bullying online.

The internet can be a target for malware, viruses, and other security threats.

Excessive use of the internet can lead to addiction and affect daily life.

 

Extranet

Extranet is a private network that that allows external users, like partners or suppliers, to access certain information or resources.

 

Intranet

Intranet is a private network accessible only to the members of an organization or a specific group which is used internally to share information, resources, and communication within the organization.

 

 

 

 

 

Differentiate between internet, intranet and extranet.

 

Extranet	Internet	Intranet
Private network for external parties	Global public network	Private network within an organization
Controlled access for specific external users	Public access for anyone	Restricted access for internal employees

 

Where does intranet has been used?

An intranet is used within organizations to facilitate internal communication, collaboration, and information sharing.

 

“Internet is called network of networks”. Justify in your own words.

The Internet is called a "network of networks" because it connects millions of smaller networks (like those of businesses, schools, and government agencies) worldwide into one large global network.

 

List out any two applications of internet.

Any two applications of internet are E-mail and E-Commerce

 

Services of Internet

1. World Wide Web

2. E-mail

3. Telnet

4. FTP (File Transfer Protocol)

5. Search Engine

6. IRC (Internet Relay Chat)

7. Online Banking

8. E-commerce

 

World Wide Web

World Wide Web was developed by Tim-Berners-Lee in 1989 AD. It is also called the web.

World Wide Web is a huge collection of web pages and websites that we can browse and interact with over the Internet..

 

 

 

 

E-mail (Electronic Mail)

E-mail is a method of sending and receiving messages over the Internet.

 

Email Address

An email address is a unique identifier used to send and receive electronic messages over the Internet.

 

For example sarthak1@gmail.com.

It has four parts they are as follows:

l sarthak1 : User’s name

l @ (At the rate): A separator symbol

l gmail : domain name

l .com, .edu or .net : "commercial" "organization" or "network"

 

Advantages of using E-mail

Emails are sent and received quickly, making it easy to share information right away.

We can send and check emails from anywhere with an Internet connection, using different devices.

We can attach and send files, documents, and pictures easily.

People can read and reply to emails whenever they want, so it doesn’t require an immediate response.

 

Disadvantages of e-mail

Unwanted emails, known as spam, can fill up inbox and can be annoying.

Emails can be hacked or intercepted, which might put personal information at risk.

Unlike phone calls or instant messaging, emails can take longer to get a reply, which isn’t great for urgent matters.

You need an Internet connection to send and receive emails, which can be a problem if we’re offline.

 

Any four sites that provide e-mail services are:

a)   www.yahoomail.com

b)   www.hotmail.com

c)   www.gmail.com

d)   www.outlook.com

 

 

 

Advantage of E-mail over traditional mail.

Emails are delivered almost instantly, while traditional mail can take days or even weeks.

Emails can be sent and received from anywhere with an Internet connection, while traditional mail requires physical addresses and delivery.

Sending emails is usually free or very inexpensive compared to postage and shipping costs for traditional mail.

Email reduces the need for paper and physical resources, making it more eco-friendly compared to traditional mail.

 

Mail server

A mail server is a computer system or software that manages email communications by sending, receiving,

storing, and organizing email messages.

 

Telnet

Telnet is a network protocol that lets users remotely access and control another computer over the Internet as if they were directly using it.

 

FTP (File Transfer Protocol)

FTP is a standard network protocol used to transfer files between computers over a network, such as the Internet.

FTP allows users to upload and download files to and from a server, making it useful for sharing and managing files.

 

Uploading

Upload is the process of transferring files or data from user’s computer or device to a remote server or another device..

 

Downloading

Download is the process of transferring files or data from a remote server or another device to user’s computer or device.

 

Search Engine

A search engine is an online tool that helps users find information on the internet using keywords or phrases, and provide relevant results. E.g. Google, Ask, Alta Vista, Bing and Yahoo.

 

 

IRC (Internet Relay Chat)

IRC is a system that lets people chat with each other in real time over the Internet by joining specific chat rooms or channels.

 

Online Banking

Online banking is a service provided by banks that allows customers to manage their bank accounts and conduct financial transactions over the Internet.

 

E-commerce

E-commerce (electronic commerce) is the process of buying and selling goods and services over the Internet, involving online transactions where businesses and consumers exchange products, services, and payments electronically. Online stores like hamrobazar, alibaba, muncha, foodmandu, Amazon, Flipkart, Shopify, Myntra, Ebay, Quikr, Olx, etc. are examples of E-commerce websites.

 

ISP (Internet Service Provider) 
ISP is a company that allows  to connect to the Internet and provides related services.

 

World Link, Mercantile, Classitech, Vianet etc are the ISPs of Nepal.

Web browser

A web browser is a software application that allows to access and view websites on the Internet.

Examples of popular web browsers include Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, Microsoft Edge, and Safari.

 

Web server

A web server is a computer system or software that stores, processes, and serves web pages to users over the Internet by handling requests from web browsers and delivering content like HTML pages, images, and videos to users' devices.

 

Video Conference

A video conference is a virtual meeting where participants use video and audio technology to communicate with each other in real-time over the Internet.

 

Internet Telephony

Internet telephony refers to the use of the Internet to make voice calls or video calls, rather than traditional telephone networks.

Newsgroup

A newsgroup is a type of online forum where users can post and discuss messages on various topics.

 

Social media

Social media refers to online platforms and applications that allow users to create, share, and interact with content and connect with others.  Eg, Facebook, twitter, WhatsApp, Instagram etc.

 

Analog signal

An analog signal is a type of signal that represents data using continuous waves.

 

IP address

An IP address (Internet Protocol address) is a unique numerical identifier assigned to each device on a network, which identifies and locates the device so it can send and receive data over the Internet.